Another biological theory is Gray’s BIS/BAS/FFS theory which suggests that there are specific neural circuits for anxiety and avoidance emotions (BIS), rewarding approach based emotions like joy (BAS) and fear or aggressive emotions (FFS). Gray’s theory has been extensively tested throughout the research with some support being found for separate brain structures being involved in anxiety related to behavioural inhibition and joy related to behavioural approach using EEG readings (Amodio, Master, Yee, & Taylor, 2008).
Other theories suggest that it is the rate of neural firing that determines which emotion is experienced. For example a medium constant rate of firing will produce distress but if it’s a high and constant rate of firing this will produce anger. Izard supports this view stating 10 emotions which are considered to have unique neural activity associated with them. He also states these 10 emotions cause unique experiences/feelings, are associated with unique facial expressions and generate distinctive motivational properties. These include two positive emotions, interest and joy, one neutral emotion, surprise and 7 negative emotions, fear, anger, disgust, distress, contempt, shame and guilt. Izard suggests that each of these emotions enables one to deal effectively with life tasks and problems in an adaptive manner.
Finally the facial feedback hypothesis suggests that emotions can be caused by facial expression, for example smiling will cause happiness, due to the muscle movements sending signals to the brain to induce happiness. I found this a really interesting idea and found one study in support for it by Soussignan (2002). This study had participants hold a pen in their mouth in such a way to facilitate a regular smile, a duchenne smile and to inhibit smiling. The duchenne smile, a wide smile which activates more muscles than regular smiling, was found to significantly increase self reported positive experience. This study lends support for the facial feedback hypothesis however other studies demonstrate that people with full facial paralysis (Möbius syndrome) still experience emotions (Miller 2007 as cited in Kalat, 2009) , which seems to contradict this theory. Reeve (2009) suggests that although facial expressions probably don’t cause emotion they certainly can add to the experience of emotions.
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| Young Girl with Mobius Syndrome |
The cognitive view of emotion focuses on the appraisals that one makes about an event and how these appraisals cause the emotional experience. Cognitive theory suggests that because different people experience the same situation with different emotional reactions, it must be their appraisal of the situation which causes their emotional response. Thus if one can control their thoughts and cognitions they can control their emotions, as is demonstrated cognitive behavioural theory, which has great support in treating many psychological disorders.
Arnold’s cognitive theory suggests that we simply appraise things as either positive or negative while Lazarus suggests an event must first be appraised as relevant to attend to and then one must assess if they have the coping ability to deal with the event. Other theories emphasize expectancy, responsibility, and legitimacy appraisals of events as influencing emotional reactions with different patterns of appraisal causing different emotions.
These theories also take into account the idea that as humans we have a need to explain why events occur and make attributions which can be external to self or internal to self. For example if one sees their failure as internal to themselves this can cause feelings of sadness.
The cognitive theory has had much success at explaining emotion, however emotions cannot be fully explained by cognitive appraisals. Thus interactions between ones cognitions, biology as well as social and cultural influences are needed to fully explain the experience of emotion (Reeve, 2009).
Social influences on emotions include ones socialised ways of dealing with emotions. Social events almost always include discussion of emotional events and include feedback from others on how they would respond and what is the appropriate emotional reaction to these events. Thus people are influenced by how their friends and family deal with emotions and modify their reactions to be in line with social norms.
I found Reeve’s (2009) discussion on the way emotions are experienced in different cultures very interesting. The concept that Chinese show more emotional restraint than people from the US was not surprising but it was interesting to consider how different cultures may experience emotions differently. One study found that people from Japanese collective culture tendencies to experience socially engaging emotions related to connectedness more strongly than those of an individualist US culture. While those from the US experienced socially disengaging emotions related to personal achievement more strongly than Japanese participants. Thus although across cultures the definitions or explanations for emotions may be the same, the actual experience of that emotion, for example the intensity of the emotion, may differ cross-culturally (Kitayama, Karasawa, & Mesquita, 2006).
References
Amodio, D. M., Master, S. L., Yee, C. M., Taylor, S. E., (2008). Neurocognitive components of the behavioral inhibition and activation systems: Implications for theories of self-regulation. Psychophysiology, 45, 11–19. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00609.x
Kalat, J. W. (2009) Biological Psychology (10th ed.) Belmont USA: Wadswoth.
Kitayama, S., Mesquita, B., & Karasawa, M. (2006). Cultural affordances and emotional experience: Socially engaging and disengaging emotions in japan and the united states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(5), 890-903. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.5.890
Reeve, J. (2009). Understanding motivation and emotion (5th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Soussignan, R. (2002). Duchenne smile, emotional experience, and autonomic reactivity: A test of the facial feedback hypothesis. Emotion, 2(1), 52-74. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.2.1.52
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